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In pre-modern religions in the geographical context of Asia we encounter unique scripts, number systems, calendars, and naming conventions. These can make Western-built technologies - even tools specifically developed for digital humanities - an ill fit to our needs. The present volume explores this struggle and the limitations and potential opportunities of applying a digital humanities approach to pre-modern Asian religions. The authors cover Buddhism, Christianity, Daoism, Islam, Jainism, Judaism and Shintoism with chapters categorized according to their focus on: 1) temples, 2) manuscripts, 3) texts, and 4) social media. Thus, the volume guides readers through specific methodologies and practical examples while also providing a critical reflection on the state of the field, pushing the interface between digital humanities and pre-modern Asian religions into new territory.

Many scholars have studied the dialogue between the Epicurean tradition and Pierre Gassendi. However, no one so far has ever attempted to conduct a full analysis of the latter's specific reception of Lucretius. The book attempts to show that Gassendi was the first to discuss almost the whole De rerum natura, as part of an ambitious project. He sought to provide a Christianized version of Lucretius' theory or to develop an atomistic worldview "freed" from the many dangerous errors that were often imputed to atomism (impiety, debauchery, and irrationality). In particular, Gassendi developed a dialectical strategy that led him to recover a providential atomism, an Epicurean psychology that saves the immortality of the soul, and a Christian hedonism from the De rerum natura. The last goal was especially important. Gassendi here emerges as the culmination of a tradition of Christian philosophers, like Lorenzo Valla and Erasmus of Rotterdam, who have tried to merge Epicurean hedonism with the Christian religion. The volume could therefore attract both scholars of Antiquity and Renaissance/modern philosophy. It is also a rewarding reading for scholars of the reception of Latin poetry from a philosophical perspective.

Der zehnte Band der Christian-Weise-Gesamtausgabe enthält zwei Stücke aus Weises frühen Jahren als Gymnasialprofessor in Weißenfels: Das Lustspiel Das dreyfache Glücke (1673) funktioniert als allegorisch verschlüsselte Darstellung der Entwicklung der Stadt Leipzig. Die Complimentir-Comoedie entstammt dem Lehrbuch Politischer Redner (1677). Beispielhaft für Weises praktische Didaktik, leitet das Stück dort zu gewandtem Sprechen und Auftreten an.

When Emperor Constantine triggered the rise of a Christian state, he opened a new chapter in the history of Constantinople and Jerusalem. In the centuries that followed, the two cities were formed and transformed into powerful symbols of Empire and Church. For the first time, this book investigates the increasingly dense and complex net of reciprocal dependencies between the imperial center and the navel of the Christian world. Imperial influence, initiatives by the Church, and projects of individuals turned Constantinople and Jerusalem into important realms of identification and spaces of representation. Distinguished international scholars investigate this fascinating development, focusing on aspects of art, ceremony, religion, ideology, and imperial rule. In enriching our understanding of the entangled history of Constantinople and Jerusalem in Late Antiquity, City of Caesar, City of God illuminates the transition between Antiquity, Byzantium, and the Middle Ages.

This volume aims to present an updated portrait of the Roman countryside in Roman Spain by the comparison of different theoretical orientations and methodological strategies including the discussion of textual and iconographic sources and the analysis of the faunal remains. The archaeology of rural areas of the Roman world has traditionally been focused on the study of villae, both as an architectural model of Roman otium and as the central core of an economic system based on the extensive agricultural exploitation of latifundia. The assimilation of most rural settlements in provincial areas of the Roman Empire with the villa model implies the acceptance of specific ideas, such as the generalization of the slave mode of production, the rupture of the productive capacity of Late Iron Age communities, or the reduction in importance of free peasant labor in the Roman economy of most rural areas. However, in recent decades, as a consequence of the generalized extension of preventive or emergency archaeology and survey projects in most areas of the ancient territories of the Roman Empire, this traditional conception of the Roman countryside articulated around monumental villae is undergoing a thorough revision. New research projects are changing our current perception of the countryside of most parts of the Roman provincial world by assessing the importance of different types of rural settlements. In the last years, we have witnessed the publication of archaeological reports on the excavation of thousands of small rural sites, farms, farmsteads, enclosures, rural agglomerations of diverse nature, etc. One of the main consequences of all this research activity is a vigorous discussion of the paradigm of the slave mode of production as the basis of Roman rural economies in many provincial areas. A similar change in the paradigm is taking place, with some delay, in the archaeology of Roman Spain. After decades of preventive/emergency interventions there is a considerable quantity of unpublished data on this kind of rural settlements. However, unlike the cases of Roman Britain or Gallia Comata, no synthesis or national projects are undertaking the task of systematizing all these data. With the intention of addressing this current situation the present volume discusses the results and methodological strategies of different projects studying peasant settlements in several regions of Roman Spain.

In recent years we have become interested in the diffusion of "small" Western technologies in the countries of the Middle East during the 19th and 20th centuries, the era of Imperialism and first globalization. We postulated a contrast between "small" and "big" technologies. Under the latter category we may understand railway systems, electricity grids, telegraph networks, and steam navigation, imposed by foreign powers or installed by connected local entrepreneurs. But many "small" Western technologies, such as sewing machines, typewriters, pianos, eyeglasses, and similar consumer goods, which had been developed and manufactured in Europe and America, were wanted, and willingly acquired by the agency of individual users elsewhere. In a few cases, however, the inventions had to be adapted, or were overstepped, and even delayed. Some were adopted as social markers or status symbols only by elites who could afford them. Processes of adoption and diffusion therefore differed according to cultural settings, preferences, and needs. Social and cultural historians, and social scientists, not only of the Middle East, will find in this collection of essays a new approach to the impact of Western technological inventions on the Middle East.

In the summer of 1783, an unusual dry fog descended upon large parts of the northern hemisphere. The fog brought with it bloodred sunsets, a foul sulfuric odor, and a host of other peculiar weather events. Inspired by the Enlightenment, many naturalists attempted to find reasonable explanations for these occurrences. Between 8 June 1783 and 7 February 1784, a 27-kilometer-long fissure volcano erupted in the Icelandic highlands. It produced the largest volume of lava released by any volcanic eruption on planet Earth in the last millennium. In Iceland, the eruption led to the death of one-fifth of the population. The jetstream carried its volcanic gases further afield to Europe and beyond, where they settled as a fog, the origin of which puzzled naturalists and laypersons. "A Mist Connection" is an environmental history that documents the Laki eruption and its consequences for Iceland and the wider world. The book combines methods of historical disaster research, climate history, global history, history of science, and geology in an interdisciplinary approach. Icelandic flood lava eruptions of this scale have a statistical recurrence period of 200 to 500 years; it is crucial to understand their nature so that we can prepare for the next one. An eruption of this magnitude would surely be disastrous for our modern, globalized, and interconnected world.

Petitioning Osiris re-edits, re-analyses, and re-contextualises the "Old Coptic Schmidt Papyrus" and "Curse of Artemisia" - written petitions to different manifestations of Osiris - among the Letters to Gods in Demotic, Greek, and Old Coptic from Egypt. The textual traditions of the Letters to Gods, to the Dead, and Oracle Questions which evidence that ritual tradition of petitioning deities are contextualised among contemporary textual traditions, such as Letters and Petitions to Human Recipients, and Documents of Self-Dedication, and compared to later ritual traditions such as proactive and reactive curses without and with judicial features (so-called Prayers for Justice) in Greek and Coptic from Egypt and the Eastern Mediterranean. As with all other Letters to Gods, the Old Coptic Schmidt Papyrus and Curse of Artemisia evidence not only the struggles and aspirations of their petitioners, but also the way in which they conceptualised that they could bring about desired outcomes in their lived experience by engaging divine agency through a reciprocal relationship of human-divine interaction. Petitioning Osiris therefore provides a starting point and springboard for readers interested in these, or comparable, textual and ritual traditions from the Ancient World.

Plato's contribution to narratology has traditionally been traced in his tripartite categorisation of narrative modes we read of in the Republic. Although other aspects of storytelling are also addressed throughout the Platonic oeuvre, such passages are treated as instantaneous flares of metanarrative speculation on Plato's part and do not seem to contribute to the reconstruction of his 'theory of narrative'. Vasileios Liotsakis challenges this view and argues that the Statesman, the Timaeus/Critias and the Laws reveal that Plato had consolidated in his mind and compositionally put into effect one systematic mode in which to express his thoughts on narratives. In these dialogues Liotsakis recognizes the birth of a proto-narratology which differs in many respects from what we today expect from a narratological handbook, but still demonstrates two key-features of narratology: (a) a conscious focus on certain aspects of narrativity which are vastly discussed by narratologists and pertain to the structuring and reception of narratives; and (b) a schematised mode of interaction between metanarrative reflections and textual bodies which serve as the paradigms through which to explore the interpretive potential of these reflections.

Manoscritti di età bizantina tramandano liste di autori greci di eccellenza o canoni nei diversi generi letterari e scientifico-filosofici, ma ne è mancata una ricerca su natura, cronologia, origine, formazione, uso. Il volume Παραδείγματα, termine con cui i testi retorici designano i canoni, dà una nuova edizione critica di queste liste come base degli argomenti trattati. Una delle liste, ritenuta finora unitaria, risulta composta da due liste in origine indipendenti e diacroniche, poi congiunte in una sola: una più antica, risalente almeno in parte alla filologia alessandrina, e un'altra forse del V-VI secolo d. C. con aggiunte fino al IX, formatasi tra Alessandria e Costantinopoli. Una più tarda lista di canoni, riferibile al XIII-XIV secolo, si dimostra diversa dalle precedenti riflettendo istanze tutte bizantine in parte intrinseche all'ortodossia di Bisanzio poiché include Padri della Chiesa e teologi, in parte discese da svolte culturali dei secoli XI-XII, in parte ispirate alla Seconda Sofistica. Si sono quindi esaminati gruppi e autori di ciascuna lista richiamando di questi ultimi contesto geo-storico, attività, produzione e tradizione testuale, posto nell'erudizione seriore. Infine, si sono confrontate le liste con i canoni recepiti o riformulati da letterati ed eruditi bizantini. Il volume può riuscire utile a quanti si occupano di canoni letterari e scientifico-filosofici antichi, di storia dell'erudizione, dell'uso dei classici e dei Padri della Chiesa a Bisanzio.

Der vorliegende Band vereinigt die Akten des internationalen Schleiermacher-Kongresses 2021 und nimmt den Philosophen, Theologen, Pädagogen und Übersetzer Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834) als Kommunikationstheoretiker in den Blick. Ob als Universitätslehrer, Kanzelredner, als politischer Reformer, Publizist, Salongänger oder Briefeschreiber - Schleiermacher war selbst ein begnadeter Kommunikator und im Begriff der Kommunikation bündeln sich wie in einem Brennglas viele zentrale Aspekte seines Denkens. Seine Philosophie, Theologie und philologische Praxis zeichnen sich durch ihre emphatische Prozesshaftigkeit jenseits starrer Systeme aus. Sich in Sprache manifestierendes Wissen, moralisches Handeln, religiöses Erleben und der Entwurf gemeinschaftlicher Institutionen sind im beständigen Werden und nur im Austausch der miteinander streitenden, sich liebenden und hassenden, Ideen und Sinn entwerfenden und um Gemeinschaft und Individualität ringenden Menschen wirklich. Die Beiträge dieses Bandes gehen Schleiermachers Werk ebenso wie seiner gesellschaftlichen, kirchlichen und philologischen Praxis vor dem Hintergrund ihrer ideengeschichtlichen Verflechtung nach und aktualisieren sein Denken in Auseinandersetzung mit unterschiedlichen Positionen der Gegenwart.

This volume unites not just the first editions of Christine's de Pizan military and warfare treatise (1410), but also its translation into High Alemannic. As a significant medieval witness to Christine's de Pizan reception in the German-speaking world, the translation - which was transmitted individually and was probably written in Bern in the second half of the fifteenth century - is the special focus of this volume.

Das Archiv für Geschichte des Buchwesens (AGB) ist eine zentrale wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift für die Buch- und Buchhandelsgeschichte. Das Publikationsprofil des AGB bilden Abhandlungen, Editionen und Berichte zu allen Themen der buchhistorischen Forschung im deutschsprachigen Bereich und darüber hinaus. Dazu gehören medien-, kultur-, sozial- und geistesgeschichtliche wie auch technikgeschichtliche Perspektiven.

This book investigates the complex reception of Terence in Ovid and a number of allusions to the Terentian comedies in the love elegies and the exilic elegiac epistle Tristia 2. The genres of Latin love elegy and New Comedy are often seen as closely connected in research, and one leading view is that Latin love elegy to a large degree springs out of the comic genre. However, though both genres are strongly rooted in social practise and presents interpersonal relationships in a non-mythological, everyday setting, there are also major differences between them. Marriage, for instance, is the conventional goal for the young lover withing the comic genre, whereas the elegiac lover should avoid it. Taking into account both the similarities and the crucial differences between the comic genre and Latin love elegy, and key elegiac topoi such as seruitium amoris and militia amoris, this book demonstrates an intricate connection between Ovid and Terence, and a complex nexus of allusions that goes straight to the core of Ovid's elegiac authorship. Winner of the Trends in Classics Book Prize 2023

The updated edition of the second of three volumes on Medical Physics presents modern physical methods for medical diagnostics. It provides a solid background on imaging techniques that use non-ionizing probes (ultrasound, endoscopy including CLE and OCT, MRI) and imaging techniques that use ionizing radiation (X-ray radiography, CT, SPECT, PET). Radiation sources, interactions of radiation with matter and radiation protection for x-rays, -rays, protons and neutrons are presented. Some of these topics are also relevant to the therapeutic applications presented in Volume 3. NEW: highlighted boxes emphasize specifi c topics; math boxes explain more advanced mathematical issues; each chapter concludes with a summary of the key concepts, questions, a self-assessment of the acquired competence and exercises. The appendix provides answers to questions and solutions to exercises.

Letters are famously easy to recognise, notoriously hard to define. Both real and fictitious letters can look identical to the point that there are no formal criteria which can distinguish one from the other. This has long been a point of anxiety in scholarship which has considered the value of an ancient letter to be determined by its authenticity, necessitating a strict binary opposition of genuine as opposed to fake letters. This volume challenges this dichotomy directly. Rather than defining epistolary fiction as a literary genre in opposition to 'genuine' letters or reducing it down to fixed rhetorical features, it argues that fiction is an inherent and fluid property of letters which ancient writers recognised and exploited. This volume contributes to wider scholarship on ancient fiction by demonstrating through the multiplicity of genres, contexts, and time periods discussed how complex and multifaceted ancient awareness of fictionality was. As such, this volume shows that letters are uniquely well-placed to unsettle disciplinary boundaries of fact and fiction, authentic and spurious, and that this allows for a deeper understanding of how ancient writers conceptualised and manipulated the fictional potential of letters.

Der Band unternimmt eine theoretisch-methodologische Grundlegung der Beziehungen zwischen Literatur und Naturwissenschaft. Er verbindet kultursemiotische, narratologische und wissenschaftsphilosophische Ansätze und erweitert die Bandbreite vorliegender Perspektiven zum Konnex 'Literatur und Wissenschaft' um einen neuen Zugang: den der zeichen- und erzähltheoretisch informierten und physiktheoretisch refl ektierten Interformation. Untersucht werden Texte von E.T.A. Hoffmann bis Durs Grünbein, von Johannes Kepler bis Albert Einstein.

Questa edizione contiene il testo greco degli scholia (vetera e recentiora) e delle glosse all'Andromacha di Euripide con un apparato critico e un apparato di loci similes. Lo scopo di questo lavoro è quello di migliorare l'edizione di Schwartz sia nella recensio che nella costituzione del testo. La recensio coinvolge tutti i testimoni esistenti degli scholia di questa tragedia, dall'antichità al Rinascimento, invece dei tre manoscritti collazionati da Schwartz. L'introduzione si articola in due capitoli: il primo esamina la tradizione manoscritta e il secondo indaga il rapporto tra gli scholia e l'interpretazione critica del testo euripideo nell'antichità. Il volume si conclude con l'edizione degli scholia tricliniani ad Andromacha dal Laur. plut. 32.2.

Al-Fawāʾid al-sanīyah fī al-riḥlah al-Madanīyah wa al-Rūmīyah by Quṭb al-Dīn al-Nahrawālī (d. 990/1582) is a unique book in its content and history and has been long-awaited to be seen in an edited publication. The present edition is based on the manuscript in Velieddin Efendi's collection of Beyazit Umumi Kütüphanesi in Istanbul. This manuscript is the author's draft of which he was unable to make a fair copy for public readership. This has rendered the editor's task much more challenging, requiring him to consult a corpus of significant historical, geographical and literary sources to finalize the current edition. The book includes historical and literary material relating to some Hijaz events in the mid-tenth century/sixteenth century. It also relates the author's many voyages within the Hijaz region and his trip to the court of Suleiman the Magnificent as an envoy carrying a letter of complaint from the Sheriff of Mecca against the Ottoman governor of Medina, Delü Piri. For an-Nahrawālī, this book was so important that he used to take it with him on all his travels. He expressed deep sorrow when he lost it, and relief when it was recovered through the intervention of the sultan's son Beyazit. Although parts of his travel accounts have been published, this is the first time that the complete work of an-Nahrawālī has been made available to scholars and researchers.

The updated edition of the first of three volumes on Medical Physics focuses even more on body systems related to physical principles such as body mechanics, energy balance, and action potentials. Thanks to numerous newly incorporated didactic features, the introductory text into the broad fi eld of medical physics is easy to understand and supports self-study. New: highlighted boxes emphasize special topics; math boxes explain more advanced mathematical issues; each chapter concludes with a summary of the key concepts, questions, a self-assessment of the acquired competence, and exercises. The appendix contains answers to questions and solutions to exercises.

Arabic printing began in Eastern Europe and the Ottoman Levant through the association of the scholar and printer Antim the Iberian, later a metropolitan of Wallachia, and Athanasios III Dabbās, twice patriarch of Antioch, when the latter, as metropolitan of Aleppo, was sojourning in Bucharest. This partnership resulted in the first Greek and Arabic editions of the Book of the Divine Liturgies (Snagov, 1701) and the Horologion (Bucharest, 1702). With the tools and expertise that he acquired in Wallachia, Dabbās established in Aleppo in 1705 the first Arabic-type press in the Ottoman Empire. After the Church of Antioch divided into separate Greek Orthodox and Greek Catholic Patriarchates in 1724, a new press was opened for Arabic-speaking Greek Catholics by ʻAbdallāh Zāḫir in Ḫinsāra (Ḍūr al-Suwayr), Lebanon. Likewise, in 1752-1753, a press active at the Church of Saint George in Beirut printed Orthodox books that preserved elements of the Aleppo editions and were reprinted for decades. This book tells the story of the first Arabic-type presses in the Ottoman Empire which provided church books to the Arabic-speaking Christians, irrespective of their confession, through the efforts of ecclesiastical leaders such as the patriarchs Silvester of Antioch and Sofronios II of Constantinople and financial support from East European rulers like prince Constantin Brâncoveanu and hetman Ivan Mazepa.

Literature serves many purposes, and one of them certainly proves to be to convey messages, wisdom, and instruction, and this across languages, religions, and cultures. Beyond that, as the contributors to this volume underscore, people have always endeavored to reach out to their community members, that is, to build community, to learn from each other, and to teach. Hence, this volume explores the meaning of communication, translation, and community building based on the medium of language. While all these aspects have already been discussed in many different venues, the contributors endeavor to explore a host of heretofore less considered historical, religious, literary, political, and linguistic sources. While the dominant focus tends to rest on conflicts, hostility, and animosity in the pre-modern age, here the emphasis rests on communication with its myriad of challenges and potentials for establishing a community. As the various studies illustrate, a close reading of communicative issues opens profound perspectives regarding human relationships and hence the social context. This understanding invites intensive collaboration between medical historians, literary scholars, translation experts, and specialists on religious conflicts and discourses. We also learn how much language carries tremendous cultural and social meaning and determines in a most sensitive manner the interactions among people in a communicative and community-based fashion.

Das Archiv für Geschichte des Buchwesens (AGB) ist eine zentrale wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift für die Buch- und Buchhandelsgeschichte. Das Publikationsprofil des AGB bilden Abhandlungen, Editionen und Berichte zu allen Themen der buchhistorischen Forschung im deutschsprachigen Bereich und darüber hinaus. Dazu gehören medien-, kultur-, sozial- und geistesgeschichtliche wie auch technikgeschichtliche Perspektiven.

Biological literature of the Roman imperial period remains somehow 'underestimated'. It is even quite difficult to speak of biological literature for this period at all: biology (apart from medicine) did not represent, indeed, a specific 'subgenre' of scientific literature. Nevertheless, writings as disparate as Philo of Alexandria's Alexander, Plutarch's De sollertia animalium or Bruta ratione uti, Aelian's De Natura Animalium, Oppian's Halieutika, Pseudo-Oppian's Kynegetika, and Basil of Caeserea's Homilies on the Creation engage with zoological, anatomic, or botanical questions. Poikile Physis examines how such writings appropriate, adapt, classify, re-elaborate and present biological knowledge which originated within the previous, mainly Aristotelian, tradition. It offers a holistic approach to these works by considering their reception of scientific material, their literary as well as rhetorical aspects, and their interaction with different socio-cultural conditions. The result of an interdisciplinary discussion among scholars of Greek studies, philosophy and history of science, the volume provides an initial analysis of forms and functions of biological literature in the imperial period.

The reception of ancient Cyprus in the Western world has not received much attention in scholarship, despite the fact that significant literary and extra-literary evidence presented by European intellectuals and artists explicitly or implicitly refers to the history of Cyprus, as well as to the myths and art produced on it or inspired by its landscape. This is a neglect that this volume wishes to address, by re-establishing the literary thread of the representation of ancient Cyprus beyond generic, spatial and temporal limits, and by thus shedding light on its depiction throughout the centuries, from the ancient Roman to the Western world up until modern times. The volume's central thesis is that a number of Cypriot traditions constitute a unique example of intercultural and multi-level fusions of diverse European civilizations. By investigating the various and often contradictory ways in which Cyprus was represented in Latin literature and beyond, the volume treats its multifaceted reception as a vastly complex matter, and suggests that even though the island has always been an outlier, it has often been explored in literature as an intellectual landscape and a precious pathway between at times conflictual yet compatible worlds.

The sixth volume of the series "Key Concepts of Interreligious Discourses" investigates the roots of the concept of "person" in Judaism, Christianity and Islam and its relevance for the present time. The concept of "person" lies at the core of central ideas in the modern world, such as the value and development of personal identity, the sanctity of human person and the human rights based on that. In societies that are shaped by a long Christian tradition, these ideas are associated often with the belief in the creation of man in the image of God. But although Judaism shares with Christianity the same Biblical texts about the creation of man and also the Qurʾān knows Adam as the first human being created by God and his representative on earth, the focus on the concept of "person" is in each one of these religions a different one. So, the crucial question is: how did the concept of "person" evolve in Judaism, Christianity and Islam out of the concept of "human being"? What are the special features of personhood in each one of these traditions? The volume presents the concept of "person" in its different aspects as anchored in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. It unfolds commonalities and differences between the three monotheistic religions as well as the manifold discourses about the meaning of "person" within these three religions.

In the current revival of studies on Alexander the Great, literature has until now neglected - also because of the scarcity of testimonies - its 'poetic' side. Choerilus of Iasus, the most important among the poets who accompanied Alexander's endeavours, represents no exception. For this reason, the book delivers a complete study of Choerilus' works, life and (mis-)fortune. By doing so, it reassesses philologically and historically a blind spot in present-day research and therefore illuminates further the field of Alexandrography as well as its literary reception. The volume entails first of all a new edition of all the testimonies and fragments pertaining to Choerilus of Iasus, updating and expanding the latest collection edited by H. Lloyd-Jones and P. Parsons in the Supplementum Hellenisticum (1983). Following up, the book develops in four chapters an analysis and discussion of the texts collected in the critical edition. The fifth concluding chapter retraces and contextualises the history of modern studies, from the Renaissance on, concerning the elusive figure of Choerilus.

Historical studies on the practice of Islamic law (sharīʿa) tend to focus on practice in a Sunni setting during the Mamluk or Ottoman periods. This book decenters Sunni and Mamluk and Ottoman normativity by investigating the practice of sharīʿa in a Twelver Shiʿi Persian-speaking milieu, in early modern Iran between the sixteenth to twentieth centuries. Drawing on documentary evidence and narrative sources, it reconstructs who the practitioners of Islamic law were, how they authenticated, annulled, and archived legal documents, and how they intervened in the resolution of disputes over religious endowments (waqf). The study demonstrates that following Iran's conversion to Twelver Shiʿism under the Safavids, the dominance of Uṣūlī Shiʿi legal theory, which conferred judicial authority on scholars recognized as Shiʿi jurists (mujathids), affected both the practitioners of Islamic law and the procedures of sharīʿa court practice in Iran. Shiʿi jurists in Iran, as a result, would come to exercise by the end of the nineteenth century a judicial monopoly over valid sharīʿa court practice thus laying the foundation for Ayatollah Khomeini's extension, during the Iranian revolution, of the authority of the Shiʿi jurist over political affairs.