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Clinical toxicology is a subspecialty of medicine. It studies the toxicology of drugs and provides diagnosis and treatments as well as prevention techniques to counter poisoning and adverse effects of medications, toxicants and biological agents. Clinical toxicology studies also deal with adverse drug reactions, acute or chronic poisoning, drug overdoses, substance abuse, etc. It is practiced by physicians as well as other health professionals, non-physicians and pharmacists. Clinical toxicology has varied applications, such as evaluating the health impacts from exposure to toxic substances, contributing to pharmaceutical research and drug safety, handling the aftermath of critical events of bioterrorism, chemical warfare and biological warfare. It is also significant in analyzing and interpreting diagnostic tests and forensic studies in clinical and forensic laboratories. This book presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. It elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to this field. This book, with its detailed analyses and data, will prove immensely beneficial to professionals and students involved in this area at various levels.

Nursing is concerned with the provision of care to maintain a quality of life for individuals, families or communities. It is extended to individuals across all ages and cultural backgrounds in a manner that takes into consideration the patient's physical, psychological, intellectual, social and emotional needs. Evidence-based nursing refers to the provision of nursing care that is based on an integration of personal clinical expertise and current research. This approach is founded on evidence-based practice. It strives to improve the health and safety of patients in a cost-effective manner. Evidence-based practice is based on the principles of cultivating a spirit of inquiry, asking clinical questions, collecting evidence, appraising the evidence, integrating the evidence, evaluating outcomes and disseminating outcomes. The topics covered in this extensive book deal with the core aspects of nursing and healthcare. It aims to present the researches that have transformed this discipline and aided its advancement. In this book, using case studies and examples, constant effort has been made to make the understanding of this field as easy and informative as possible for the readers.

Orthopedics is a branch of surgery that develops surgical interventions for the treatment of musculoskeletal disorders. The treatment of musculoskeletal trauma, degenerative diseases, tumors, spine diseases, etc. is dealt within orthopedics. Knee and shoulder arthroscopy, laminectomy, lumbar spinal fusion, hip replacement, etc. are some of the common surgical procedures. Orthopedic physical therapy is a vital procedure involved in the diagnosis, management and treatment of orthopedic disorders and injuries. It is also concerned with rehabilitation for patients who have undergone orthopedic surgery or trauma like strains, sprains, etc. This book is a compilation of chapters that discuss the most vital concepts and emerging trends in the field of orthopedics. The various studies that are constantly contributing towards advancing technologies are examined in detail. In this book, using case studies and examples, constant effort has been made to make the understanding of the difficult concepts of orthopedics as easy and informative as possible, for the readers.

Orthopedic surgical procedures are used for treating musculoskeletal trauma, injuries, degenerative diseases and tumors. Arthroscopy and arthroplasty are the principal surgical procedures in this field. Arthroplasty is a procedure in orthopedic surgery, which involves the replacement, realignment or remodeling of the articular surface of a musculoskeletal joint. It is done to relieve pain due to arthritis and restore function to the joint. Joint replacement, interpositional arthroplasty, silicone replacement arthroplasty, etc. are some of the different types of arthroplasty. Arthroscopy is a minimally invasive surgical procedure that is done on a joint. It is done by inserting an arthroscope into the joint through a small incision. It is a great alternative to traditional surgery as it reduces recovery time and trauma. The objective of this book is to give a general view of the different types of orthopedic surgical procedures and their clinical advances. It presents the complex subject of orthopedic surgery in the most comprehensible and easy to understand language. It will help the readers in keeping pace with the rapid changes in this field.

Primary healthcare is defined as the essential healthcare, which allows the facilitation of universal healthcare for all individuals and families in a community. It is one of the primary objectives of the World Health Organization's goal of Health for all. The five considerations that are central to the achievement of this goal are reducing social disparities in health, service delivery reforms to meet people's needs, public policy reforms, leadership reforms and increasing stakeholder participation. The approach to primary healthcare also strives to account for disparities in resources and local priority health problems. In developing countries, diseases responsible for high rates of infant and child mortality are targeted. Oral rehydration therapy, immunization, family planning, female education and food supplementation are certain key issues under the broad framework of primary healthcare. The topics included in this book on primary healthcare are of the utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. Some of the diverse topics covered in this book address the varied branches that fall under this category. This book will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers.

Pharmacoepidemiology is concerned with the study of the uses of drugs and their effects in specific populations. It builds on the principles of pharmacology and epidemiology. Drug safety is a significant area of pharmacoepidemiology. It studies the adverse effects of drugs. It is concerned with the assessment, detection, monitoring and prevention of adverse drug reactions. Overdose, misuse and abuse of drugs as well as drug exposure during critical stages of human life such as pregnancy and breastfeeding, are also studied in this field. This book aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects of drug safety and pharmacoepidemiology. It strives to provide a fair idea about these disciplines and to help develop a better understanding of the latest advances within these fields. Students, researchers, experts, pharmacologists and all associated with these fields will benefit alike from this book.

Anesthesia is a state of temporarily induced loss of awareness or sensation to achieve three primary goals of hypnosis, analgesia and muscle relaxation. There are varied drugs used for anesthesia such as general anesthetics, analgesics, neuromuscular-blocking drugs, etc. These drugs affect interconnected parts of the nervous system. An important stage of anesthesia is risk assessment, which is crucial for reducing anesthetic risks. It is a pre-operative procedure that covers the medical history, physical examination and lab tests, and obtains information about any medical conditions or genetic disorders that might afflict the patient. The various advancements in clinical anesthesia are glanced at in this book and their applications as well as ramifications are looked at in detail. It includes contributions of experts and scientists, which will provide innovative insights into the study of anesthesia. Researchers and students in this field will be assisted by this book.

Metabolic syndrome is a cluster of any three conditions, among central obesity, high blood sugar levels, high blood pressure, low serum high-density lipoprotein and high triglycerides levels. There exists a strong association between metabolic syndrome and the risk of development of Type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Accumulation of fat around the stomach and abdomen is the primary symptom of metabolic syndrome. Its common causes include stress, physical inactivity, aging, diabetes, coronary artery disease and lipodystrophic disorders. Physical exercise and healthy diet are useful in preventing it. This book brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of metabolic syndrome. It includes some of the vital pieces of work being conducted across the world, on various topics related to the treatment of metabolic syndrome. The book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area as well as for experts.

Systemic lupus erythematosus is a type of autoimmune disease. It is a chronic inflammatory condition in which the immune system mistakenly attacks the healthy tissues and body parts. The symptoms range from mild to severe. Fever, tiredness, painful and swollen joints, red rash on the face, mouth ulcers and swollen lymph nodes are some common symptoms. Genetic and environmental factors are believed to be its causes. Antinuclear antibody (ANA) testing, anti-extractable nuclear antigen (anti-ENA) and lupus band test are used for diagnosing it. Treatment methods include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), immunosuppressants and intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIGs). This book brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of systemic lupus erythematosus. It will also provide interesting topics for research, which interested readers can take up. The extensive content of this book provides the readers with a thorough understanding of this disease.

Acupuncture is an important type of alternative medicine, involving the insertion of thin needles into the body. It is of utmost significance in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). It is most commonly used for the purpose of relieving pain. It is often used as a complementary medicine, i.e., with other forms of treatment. The benefits of acupuncture are short-lived. It is primarily used to treat cases of musculoskeletal problems, including knee pain, lower back pain and shoulder stiffness. Some of the common therapeutic procedures associated with it include cupping therapy, electroacupuncture, moxibustion and fire needle acupuncture. This book traces the progress of acupuncture and highlights some of its key concepts and applications. This book is a collective contribution of a renowned group of international experts. A number of latest researches have been included to keep the readers up-to-date.

The study of retroviruses is known as retrovirology. Retroviruses are those types of RNA viruses, which insert a copy of their genome into the DNA of the cells of the organism that they invade. Such insertion changes the genome of the host cell. Those viruses are generally classified as single-stranded positive-sense RNA viruses. Once they enter the cytoplasm of the host cell, the viruses use their own reverse transcriptase enzyme to produce DNA from their RNA genomes. The virions of a retrovirus constitute of enveloped particles, which are 100 nm in diameter. The main virion components include envelope, RNA and proteins. The study of retrovirus has applications in clinical gene therapy for the long-term correction of genetic defects, such as in stem and progenitor cells. Gammaretroviral and lentiviral vectors are used for gene therapy as they mediate stable genetic modification of treated cells. These have been used in many clinical trials as treatment options for various diseases. This book is a compilation of chapters that discuss the most vital concepts and emerging trends in the field of retrovirology. The various studies that are constantly contributing towards evolution of this discipline are examined in detail. This book includes contributions of experts and scientists, which will provide innovative insights into this field.

The branch of science concerned with the evolution, structure, mapping, function and editing of genomes is known as genomics. The complete set of DNA of an organism, including all its genes is called a genome. Human genome refers to the set of nucleic acid sequences for humans, encoded as DNA, in a small DNA molecule found within individual mitochondria and 23 chromosome pairs in the cell nuclei. The human genome may be separated into the mitochondrial genome and the nuclear genome. Human genome includes both noncoding DNA and protein-coding DNA genes. The topics included in this book on human genomics are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. It provides significant information of this discipline to help develop a good understanding of human genomics and related fields. Scientists, researchers and students actively engaged in this field will find this book full of crucial and unexplored concepts.

The process of inventing and finding new medications on the basis of the knowledge of a biological target is called drug design. The chemical substances which activate or inhibit the functions of a biomolecule, and consequently result in therapeutic benefits to the patients are called drugs. They are usually obtained through extraction from several medicinal plants or by organic synthesis. Drug design is a process involving the design of such molecules which are similar in the shape and charge to the biomolecular target with which they interact, in order to bind to it. This book brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of drug design and analysis. Different approaches, evaluations, methodologies and advanced studies on drug design and analysis have been included in it. The extensive content of this book provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

Pharmaceutics is a branch of pharmaceutical science. It is concerned with the process of converting old drugs or a new chemical entity into a new medication which can be used safely by the patients. It is also known as the science of dosage form design, as it deals with the conversion of a pure drug substance into a dosage form. Pharmaceutical formulation, pharmaceutical manufacturing, physical pharmacy, dispensing pharmacy, pharmaceutical technology and pharmaceutical jurisprudence are some of the branches of pharmaceutics. Pharmaceutical formulation is a process in which several chemical substances, including the active drug, are combined together for producing a final medicinal product. This book elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to pharmaceutics. It studies, analyzes and upholds the pillars of pharmaceutics and its utmost significance in modern times. This book will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers in this field.

Antibiotic refers to the antimicrobial substance which is active against bacteria. It plays a crucial role in fighting bacterial infections. It is used to kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria. Some antibiotics also possess the qualities of an antiprotozoal agent. Antibiotics are used in definitive therapy and empiric therapy. The interaction between some antibiotics such as tinidazole, latamoxef, furazolidone and metronidazole, with alcohol may reduce the effectiveness of antibiotics, and may cause a few side-effects. The topics included in this book on antibiotics are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. It brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of antibiotics. This book, with its detailed analyses and data will prove immensely beneficial to professionals and students involved in this area at various levels.

A biological marker or biomarker is a measurable indicator of a biological state or condition. Biomarkers are evaluated to investigate pharmacologic responses to a therapeutic intervention or to examine biological and pathogenic processes. In medicine, a biomarker may be used to examine organ function or other health aspects. They can be prognostic or predictive. Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is a common biomarker that is used in medicine. Biomarkers are used in the molecular diagnosis of colon, breast and lung cancer, melanoma and chronic myeloid leukemia. Effective and robust biomarkers can be instrumental in improving diagnosis of diseases, monitoring drug activity and guiding the development of targeted therapies for varied chronic conditions. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about biomarkers. It aims to present researches that have advanced the understanding of biomarkers and their role in drug discovery and disease diagnosis. The readers would gain knowledge that would broaden their perspective about biological markers.

Any substance which causes a temporary physiological or psychological change in the body on being consumed, inhaled, smoked or absorbed is called a drug. Pharmaceutical drugs are the chemical substances which are used to prevent, diagnose, cure or treat diseases or to promote well-being. They can be used for limited period or on regular basis according to the diseases. They are produced from medicinal plants or by organic synthesis. The domain of pharmaceutical science is concerned with the design, delivery, disposition and action of such drugs. The topics included in this book on drugs and pharmaceutical sciences are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. It strives to provide a fair idea about this discipline and to help develop a better understanding of the latest advances within this field. For all those who are interested in drugs and pharmaceutical sciences, this book can prove to be an essential guide.

Pain management is a branch of medicine that is involved in the provision of a better quality of life to individuals with chronic pain by easing their suffering. Pain resolves when the underlying pathology has been treated or the trauma is healed. However, chronic pain requires long-term pain management. Some of the treatment approaches to chronic pain are prescription pain medicine, interventional procedures, physical exercise and therapy, psychological therapy, etc. Various interventional procedures such as epidural steroid injections, spinal cord stimulators, neurolytic blocks, etc. may be used for chronic pain. Most of the topics introduced in this book cover new pain management techniques and their applications. It includes some of the vital pieces of work being conducted across the world, on various topics related to pain management. It attempts to assist those with a goal of delving into this field.

The science and technique associated with the preparation and distribution of drugs is known as pharmacy. It acts as a link between health sciences and chemical sciences. Its main goal is to ensure the safety and efficacy of pharmaceutical drugs. The health professionals involved in the practice of pharmacy are called pharmacists or chemists. They are experts in drug therapy. The main sub-disciplines of pharmacy include pharmaceutics, medicinal chemistry, pharmacognosy, pharmacy practice, pharmacology and pharmacoinformatics. Biochemical mechanisms and action of drugs, therapeutic effects, potential drug interactions, etc. are important focus areas of pharmaceutical sciences. This book provides significant information of this discipline to help develop a good understanding of pharmacy and related fields. The various sub-fields of pharmacy along with technological progress that have future implications are glanced at in it. As this field is emerging at a rapid pace, the contents of this book will help the readers understand the modern concepts and applications of the subject.

Pharmaceutical science refers to a set of interdisciplinary fields of study that are concerned with the design, delivery, action and disposition of pharmaceutical drugs. There is an application of inorganic chemistry, physical chemistry, analytical chemistry, biochemistry, cell biology, molecular biology, anatomy, physics, epidemiology and several other fields of science in pharmaceutical science. Pharmaceutical sciences may be divided into pharmacology, pharmaceutics, pharmaceutical chemistry and pharmacognosy. Together these disciplines encompass the design of drug formulation for optimum stability and delivery, study of the physiological and biochemical effects of drugs on human beings, synthesis of new drug molecules, etc. The book aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects of pharmaceutical science and the recent researches in this field. The various studies that are constantly contributing towards advancing technologies and evolution of this field are examined in detail. As this field is emerging at a rapid pace, the contents of this book will help the readers understand the modern concepts and applications of the subject.

Anesthesia is an induced state of temporary and controlled loss of awareness and sensation. It includes paralysis or muscle relaxation, prevention and relief from pain, and unconsciousness. It allows the painless performance of medical procedures, which could cause intolerable pain in an unanesthetized patient. It can be administered such that it leads to a total lack of sensation, or to partial loss of sensation, or inhibit anxiety and the creation of long-term memories. Safe anesthesia administration requires a holistic understanding of the effects of anesthetic drugs, organ support techniques, hemodynamic monitoring, advanced airway management and diagnostic techniques. The practice of anesthesia is known as anesthesiology. This book discusses the fundamentals as well as modern approaches of anesthesiology. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. The extensive content of this book provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

All disorders related to the functioning of the joints are categorised as arthritis. The common symptoms of arthritis include reduced motion, joint pain, swelling, stiffness, and redness. Ankylosing spondylitis is one of the most common types of arthritis. It involves the long term inflammation of the joints of the spine, pelvis, shoulder, and hips. Back pain, stiffness in the affected area, eye and bowel problems are some of the common symptoms of ankylosing spondylitis. Medical imaging and blood tests are two of the common ways of diagnosis. Arthritis treatment methods include the use of disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), pain replacements and anti-inflammatory drugs, joint replacements, etc. This book elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to arthritis care and management. It includes some of the vital pieces of work being conducted across the world, on various topics related to arthritis. This book will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers.

Clinical pharmacy is a sub-field of pharmacy. It is concerned with providing direct care to the patients by optimizing the use of medication and promoting health and wellness. A specialist in this field is called a clinical pharmacist. The main task of clinical pharmacists involves the care of patients in all health care settings. In order to carry out their tasks in a smooth and effective manner, they are often required to collaborate with nurses, physicians and other healthcare professionals. They play a significant role in the health care system by providing information regarding the safe and cost-effective uses of medications. This book unfolds the innovative aspects of clinical pharmacy, which will be crucial for the progress of this field in the future. It studies, analyzes and upholds the pillars of clinical pharmacy and its utmost significance in modern times. Students, researchers, experts and all associated with clinical pharmacy will benefit alike from this book.

The core structure of a steroid comprises of seventeen carbon atoms, bonded in four fused rings. These include one five-member cyclopentane ring, and three six-member cyclohexane rings. Steroids are biologically active organic compounds which have four rings arranged in a specific molecular configuration. These are found in several animals, fungi and plants. They are usually formed in the cells from the sterols lanosterol or cycloartenol. Steroids can be modified by slight changes to the ring structure. Gonane is the simplest steroid, which is the fundamental nucleus of all steroids. It consists of the fusion of a phenanthrene ring with a cyclopentane ring. This book brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of steroids. It is a valuable compilation of topics, ranging from the basic to the most complex advancements in the research of steroids. The book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area as well as for experts.

Urology is a branch of medicine, concerned with surgical as well as medical diseases related to the male and female urinary-tract system, and the male reproductive organs. Genitourinary disorders also fall under the domain of urology. Some of the common genitourinary disorders include hypospadias, labial fusion, epispadias and varicocele. Two of the most common and effective methods to treat urological diseases include robotic surgery and laparoscopic surgery. A robotic surgery is either performed through a direct telemanipulator or through computer control. In a laparoscopic surgery, small surgical incisions are made in the abdomen or pelvis. This book brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of urology. The various advancements in urology are glanced at and their applications as well as ramifications are looked at in detail. Students, urologists, experts and all associated with urology will benefit alike from this book.

A urinary tract infection (UTI) refers to an infection of the urinary tract. When it affects the upper urinary tract, it is termed as a kidney infection and when it affects the lower urinary tract, it is called a bladder infection. Some of the symptoms of a UTI are flank pain and fever, pain or burning while urinating and the persistent need to urinate despite having an empty bladder. A UTI can be diagnosed based on symptoms alone. However, urinalysis and urine microscopy can give a definitive proof of a UTI. It can usually be treated with a small course of antibiotics, such as trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole and nitrofurantoin. In some cases, it may require a longer course of intravenous antibiotics. This book unravels the recent studies in the diagnosis and clinical management of urinary tract infections. It will also provide interesting topics for research, which interested readers can take up. It is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area as well as for experts.

Urology, also known as genitourinary surgery, is a study of the diseases related to the urinary-tract system. It also involves the study of the disorders associated with the male reproductive organs. Organs which come under the scope of urology include the bladder, kidneys, urethra, ureters, prostate, seminal vesicles, vas deferens, epididymis, adrenal glands, testes and penis. Some of the sub-disciplines of urology include endourology, neurourology, reconstructive urology, urologic oncology, female urology, among others. Some of the fields that are closely linked with urology are andrology, gynaecology, nephrology, gastroenterology and endocrinology. Surgeons and medical practitioners, whose area of specialization is urology, are called urologists. This book is a valuable compilation of topics, ranging from the basic to the most complex advancements in the field of clinical urology. It brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of urology. This book with its detailed analyses of data, will prove immensely beneficial to professionals and students involved in this area at various levels.

The organ transplant of a kidney into a patient having end-stage renal disease is known as renal or kidney transplantation. Diabetes mellitus, malignant hypertension, infections, focal segmental glomerulosclerosis and polycystic kidney disease are some of the common disorders which often lead to end-stage renal disease. In case of renal transplantation, the donor and the recipient should be ABO blood group and crossmatch (human leukocyte antigen - HLA) compatible. The renal transplantation surgery usually takes around three hours. The transplanted donor kidney is placed in the lower abdomen and its blood vessels are then connected to the arteries and veins in the recipient's body. Renal transplantation is an upcoming field of medicine that has undergone rapid development over the past few decades. It strives to provide a fair idea about this discipline and to help develop a better understanding of the latest advances within this field. The book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area as well as for doctors and experts.

The surgical specialty concerned with the treatment of several disorders and defects in the face, head, neck, jaws, and the hard and soft tissues of the oral and maxillofacial region is known as oral and maxillofacial surgery. It is considered to be an important sub-speciality of dentistry. A medical practitioner who has specialized in the treatment of the entire craniomaxillofacial complex, which consists of the anatomical area of the mouth, skull, jaws, and face, is called an oral and maxillofacial surgeon. Some of the surgical procedures performed under this field include dentoalveolar surgery, genioplasty, orthognathic surgery, rhinoplasty, otoplasty, oculoplastics and septoplasty, among many others. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the theory and practice of oral and maxillofacial surgery. It brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of oral and maxillofacial surgery. The book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area as well as for doctors and experts.

The field of medicine that deals with the health issues that are unique, or are more widespread, in tropical and subtropical regions is known as tropical medicine. Some common diseases in the tropical and subtropical regions include malaria, tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS. However, there are several non-communicable diseases and neglected tropical diseases which affect the health of people living in the tropical and subtropical regions. Lack of preventive medicine, education and proper diet have led to a significant mortality due to non-communicable diseases, such as cancer, respiratory diseases and cardiovascular diseases. Chagas disease, dengue, leprosy, rabies and eumycetoma are some common examples of neglected tropical diseases. This book unfolds the innovative aspects of tropical medicine which will be crucial for the progress of this field in the future. It is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the theory and practice of tropical medicine. This book includes contributions of experts and scientists which will provide innovative insights into this field.