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Look closely behind the lives of the stars who appeared in a host of legendary war films and discover how memories of their real-life experiences in the armed forces were haunted with heartbreak and yet filled with extraordinary heroism.

In almost forty years in Asia without a home posting, British officer John Cross spent ten of them 'under the jungle canopy'. He amassed a wealth of experience fighting against Communist Revolutionary Warfare, and training others to do so. As a result he was called upon to work in many formidable situations, and twice found himself on an army short-list of one for difficult tasks. Cross focuses on five stages in his extraordinary army career. He spent eight years as a company commander with the Gurkhas in Malaya fighting jungle operations against the communists. After that he took part in the attempt to end twenty years of guerrilla domination over the aborigines in north Malaya, and secured the territory between Thailand and the aboriginal population that had been occupied and used by the guerrillas. As commander of the Sarawak and Sabah Border Scouts in Borneo, Cross was constantly on the move. At one point in this hectic period in his service he narrowly escaped having his head cut off by an angry tribesman. He then commanded the Gurkha Independent Parachute Company, which had to operate like paras, SAS men and conventional soldiers, during the latter part of the Indonesian Confrontation with Malaya. Finally, Cross was the last commander of the British Army's Jungle Warfare School, which trained officers and men from five continents - including American trackers who, as a result, had the price on their heads doubled in Vietnam. After the closure of the Jungle Warfare School, John Cross was asked to work in both the Royal Thai Army and the Army of the Republic of Vietnam. Instead he became Defence Attaché in Laos. This fascinating book provides vivid insight into the realities of jungle warfare by one of its most experienced practitioners.

After the Second World War the Allies in referring to the German people used the term 'collective guilt', which, after minimal research, appeared unfair. There was active opposition to Hitler from the moment he led Germany into war, which ranged from young teenagers, to undergraduates, to top-level civil servants, diplomats, and to the highest ranks in the military. As the moral depravity of the Nazi regime became apparent many Germans turned against the regime, although there was always the dedicated fanatic. They had become a repressed society, watched by Himmler's SD and above all feared interrogation by the Gestapo, what one German described as the 'silence of the graveyard'. This did not stop what may be called passive resistance which this book also explores, using the work of German diarists who wrote their accounts not postwar with the benefit of hindsight, but with genuine integrity at the time as events were unfolding. This book explores not just the resistance culminating in the 20 July Plot, and the divisions of opinions amongst the various resistance groups, but also the reaction of the German public, a question which the reader may feel obliged to ask where he or she may have stood under the circumstance of the day and under such a regime.

A well-informed defector is the most dangerous counter-intelligence commodity because it takes a spy to catch a spy. Very occasionally, an agent, especially a mole or an intelligence professional, will make a mistake and incriminate themselves, but usually it is a denunciation, a tip, or a vague clue from a defector that will provide the vital information required to expose the source of a leak.Relying on recently-declassified intelligence files and interviews with defectors, their handlers, their families, and their victims, Nigel West has analyzed nine examples of wartime and postwar defections to shed new light on the phenomenon.Defectors are notoriously difficult to handle, and resettle, because of the range of genuine or invented motives that led them to take such drastic action. Some will provide a noble political motive, seeking to impress their host, while others may be driven by less worthy compulsions - perhaps greed, revenge, career disappointment, envy, anger, or nothing more complicated that a desire to start a life afresh with a different partner.Defectors are the stock-in-trade for all counter-intelligence specialists who seek the background and context of corridor gossip and water-cooler chat cannot be substituted by any amount of technical surveillance, overhead reconnaissance or hard to-interpret intercepted communications. This is the essence of Human Intelligence, and goes to the heart of loyalty, trust, betrayal and deception - the very DNA of espionage.These nine examples of switching sides all involve intelligence professionals who followed the example of Erich Vermehren. Because of his religious convictions, Vermehren felt compelled to desert the Abwehr in January 1944, even though this meant the arrest of his parents and siblings who were consigned to Sachsenhausen concentration camp. West traced Vermehren, then living under an alias in Switzerland, to hear his story first-hand. He then interviewed the British MI6 officer who had engineered the covert exfiltration from Istanbul of both the German and his wife.Sometimes a defection may be the result of a period of cultivation, as happened with Vladimir Petrov, who was gently persuaded over many months by his Polish dentist to abandon his clandestine role as rezident in Canberra for a chicken farm. The intermediary, Dr Michael Bialoguski, admitted to the author that right up to the moment of his defection, he and his Australian Security Intelligence organization colleagues were not entirely sure of Petrov's true status.Once resettled, a defector's life has daily challenges, as was explained by Yuri Rastvorov's widow, herself a CIA counter-intelligence officer, who recalled the day she had to tell their two daughters that their father was not a Czech tennis coach, but an NKVD defector who had been based in Tokyo.

No stranger to operating in conflict-torn countries, Richard Villar, a former SAS Medical Officer and current war surgeon, volunteered to provide medical support in Central Gaza during the 2024 invasion. In Gaza Medic, he offers a gripping and harrowing first-hand account of his experiences working in the war zone, where he faced his most daunting challenges yet.After traveling overland from Cairo across the Sinai Peninsula, Villar found himself working in a 200-bed hospital overrun with 700 patients, including many women and children. Conditions were dire and there was nowhere safe in Gaza. The hospital was under constant threat from drones, missiles, naval shells, and machine gun fire, making it one of the most perilous environments imaginable. Despite these dangers, he and fellow medics performed complex surgeries on victims of bombings. Medicines were limited, equipment minimal, and basic necessities such as clean water and sufficient food were luxuries.Villar's moving account transcends the politics of war to focus on the raw, often brutal, realities faced by medical professionals in conflict zones. Each day brought more mass casualties, with a healthcare system on the brink of collapse and the population facing decimation.Gaza Medic is essential reading for anyone seeking to understand the true impact of the Israel/Palestine conflict on individuals and communities. Villar's narrative is a vivid reminder that courage can be found when there is chaos all around.

The concluding part of John D Grainger's history of the Seleukids traces the tumultuous last century of their empire. In this period it was riven by dynastic disputes, secessions and rebellions, the religiously-inspired insurrection of the Jewish Maccabees, civil war and external invasion from Egypt in the West and the Parthians in the East. By the 80s BC, the empire was disintegrating, internally fractured and squeezed by the converging expansionist powers of Rome and Parthia. This is a fittingly, dramatic and colorful conclusion to John Grainger's masterful account of this once-mighty empire.

General Stanislaw Maczek's stirring memoir captures the élan, the sacrifice and the disappointed hopes of the Polish soldiers who fought alongside the Allies during the Second World War. As Commander of the 10th Motorised Cavalry Brigade in the September 1939 campaign, his men played a crucial role in resisting the German advance before crossing into Hungary with orders to rebuild the Polish Army on French soil. Fighting a further rearguard action during the 1940 Allied retreat, he and his men escaped to Britain. In February 1942, Maczek assumed command of 1st Polish Armoured Division, created out of the Polish forces which had been training in Scotland since 1940. In July 1944 the Division landed in Normandy and was responsible for closing the Falaise Gap at Mont Ormel and Chambois. Thereafter it fought on through Belgium and Holland, ultimately accepting the surrender of the German Navy at Wilhelmshaven. The Price of Victory is an inspiring tale of bravery and skill in the face of overwhelming odds, and of determination to fight for Poland on foreign soil. Having been welcomed as liberators in so many towns across Europe, it was the ultimate irony that the terms of the Yalta Agreement meant the Poles' aim of liberating their country was denied them.

When the First World War ended the then recently established Royal Air Force was awash with aircraft of all descriptions. More surprising, perhaps, was the fact that despite an ongoing cull of obsolescing types, on the last day of 1919, the RAF still possessed 9,122 non-obsolete aircraft, with a further 1,100 more assigned to the Fleet Air Arm.Whilst the famous SE.5A and Sopwith Camel had by this time largely been consigned to history, the RAF possessed no less than 1,860 Sopwith Snipes which, from 1920, would become the RAF's standard single-seat fighter for years to come. Other core types on charge on 31 December 1919 included some 1,650 Bristol F.2B fighters and 1,250 de Havilland DH.9As, which, together with the Snipe, accounted for over fifty per cent of the RAF's inventory at that time. Avro 504 training aircraft accounted for a further 2,700 airframes.In this Flight Craft Special, the authors provide a detailed and informative pictorial history of those scout/fighter aircraft that served in an operational capacity with the RAF from January 1920 until the last day of 1939 - a period in which Britain once again moved from an era of peace to war with an old enemy, albeit this time Hitler's totalitarian National Socialist Germany as opposed to the Imperial Germany of old.As well as covering each of the fighter types used during the inter-war period, and featuring most of the squadrons, the photographs themselves convey the sense of the technical advances that rapidly took root within Britain's aero industries from the mid-1930s onwards, moving from the brightly-marked overall silver wood and linen biplanes to the dull camouflaged metal-skinned monoplanes.The progression of machine-gun development - from the Lewis and Vickers of the First World War to the later Browning - is covered, spanning the days of the biplanes' two fixed synchronised Lewis or Vickers .303-inch machine-guns mounted in the forward fuselage to eight wing-mounted .303-inch Browning machine-guns in the 'new' monoplane fighters. There is also a small, but fascinating, section on the monoplane 'also rans' - the monoplane fighters that were designed and had prototypes built but failed to reach the finishing post!

The London Underground, the very essence of a great metropolis, is a story which has fascinated and captivated generations since its first opening in January 1863. For many it is a very familiar narrative, a seemingly well-trodden story, with little new or significant additions, a direct and simple story of development and expansion, from the first trains from Paddington to Farringdon, culminating in today's Elizabeth line. What this book seeks to do is to revisit the seemingly familiar story, but utilising the full wealth of archive primary resources now available. These sources are honed by a highly experienced researcher and historical expert in the subject.The daunting engineering challenges from constructing tunnels under London, or designing Underground rolling stock, to the ever present battle to secure financial stability to expand and enhance the system, along with the unique design culture; are fully explored. The book, first of others, seeks to unify the at times disparate approach to writing on the subject. You will never think about the tube in the same way again.

Several sensational stories from 19th Century Britain from royal scandals to controversial court cases.Great Scandals of the Victorians features a collection of true stories that shocked, outraged, angered or simply amused the Victorians in nineteenth-century Britain. Drawing on a wide variety of original material, seven disreputable stories that dominated the national newspapers for many weeks are explored, including the Great Warwickshire Scandal, a highly publicized divorce case where for the first time in history a Prince of Wales was called to give evidence in court; a 'baby' scandal that disrupted Queen Victoria's court and threatened the monarchy; the sex scandals of the Abode of Love, a mysterious religious cult founded by a defrocked clergyman, Henry James Prince and the sensational trial of Fanny and Stella, two outrageous cross-dressers accused of sodomy.Some scandals, though traumatic for the people involved, produced a positive outcome, such as the scandalous custody battle between Caroline Norton and her husband, which led to the passing of the Custody of Infants Act, granting mothers custody of their children following a divorce, and the case of 13-year-old Eliza Armstrong, sold to a brothel keeper for £5, which caused a major scandal and public outrage, but also led to a change in the law, raising the age of consent from 13 to 16 years.

The Boeing B-52 Stratofortress revolutionized strategic bombing with its versatility and endurance, shaping American military power globally.First flown in 1952, the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress became the ultimate expression of Cold War very heavy bomber design. The last of the famous 'Fortress' series of aircraft produced by the legendary Seattle-based company, the B-52 was created over a weekend in a hotel suite in Ohio, resulting in a design that gave America's post-war Strategic Air Command, led by General Curtis Le May, an additional nuclear-capable edge.The B-52 was almost as big as Convair's B-36 Peacemaker, the largest serial-produced piston-powered aircraft ever built. The B-52 could carry a very similar bomb load, but flew it further, higher and faster. The turbojet-powered B-52 utilized techniques Boeing had learned from the Model 450 B-47 Stratojet and was designed to meet the Strategic Air Command's ever-changing needs in the nuclear age.Like its predecessors, Boeing's B-52 proved to be a highly flexible aircraft, capable of carrying increasing payloads, meaning it has remained in service well beyond its expected lifespan. Over the decades the B-52 gradually become a strategic and tactical airborne platform capable of delivering evermore deadly attacks against targets in various environments, from jungle to arid mountains. The B-52 had become the universal tool for commanders on the ground and a symbol of American military power, capable of striking a target anywhere in the world - as evidenced by its deployment in, for example, the Vietnam War and the Gulf War. Such was its potency, that the USAF and Boeing had developed an airplane of such importance that it now seems impossible to discuss conventional air power without including the B-52.This Flight Craft title offers the aviation enthusiast, historian and modeler an exciting selection of B-52-related resources through photographs, illustrations and excellent showcase examples to help build their own versions of this fearsome military aircraft.

Examines Hitler's extraordinary rise from homelessness to world leadership.Hitler's career remains one of the most extraordinary in world history. No one else has gone from sleeping on park benches to become a world leader. After the First World War he became involved in extremist politics - first on the far left and then the far right.It is often assumed that Hitler's ambitions were never realistic and his failure was inevitable. This book challenges that view and suggests a number of missed opportunities or misjudgements that might have led to a different result.Michael FitzGerald shows how Hitler's personal defects contributed considerably to Germany's defeat. In addition to the military mistakes he made a series of political, economic and foreign policy blunders were major factors in his failure to achieve his goals.

"Domenico Angelo's book, complete with diagrams, embodies the ideas of an era." -- Philip Stafford in The Times Literary Supplement"Domenico Angelo's book, complete with diagrams, embodies the ideas of an era." - Philip Stafford in The Times Literary Supplement"This is a fascinating read and surprisingly up to date. Every fencer will learn from it...Very highly recommended." - The Sword"If there is one book on smallsword technique that a person should have in their collection, Angelos treatise is certainly that book." - JL Forgeng in Man At Arms magazineDomenico Angelo's The School of Fencing was first published in 1763 as L'Ecole des armes and was one of the most popular and influential treatises of its time. Today, it remains essential reading for any historical swordfighter, student of martial arts, or military historians, giving the reader access to one of the great masters of the art.This modern edition is annotated by Maestro Jeannette Acosta-Martinez, who is currently the foremost expert in the French small sword. Her additions to this edition help clarify Angelos text for the modern reader. This edition also includes an introduction by the editor, Jared Kirby, which gives a short history of Angelo's life.

A must-read book for those intrigued by the ever-shifting landscape of unconventional warfare and its profound impact on contemporary global dynamics.Throughout history, conflicts have given rise to unconventional forms of warfare, often propelled by personal, religious, tribal, or national ambitions. Historian David Rooney highlights pivotal figures such as the Maccabees, Napoleon, the Boer Wars, Michael Collins, Mao Tse Tung, T. E. Lawrence, Castro, Guevara, the Guerrillas of World War II, and Al Qaeda's Osama Bin Ladenhighlights pivotal figures such as the Maccabees, Napoleon, the Boer Wars, Michael Collins, Mao Tse Tung, T. E. Lawrence, Castro, Guevara, the Guerrillas of World War II, and Al Qaeda's Osama Bin Laden, illustrating the evolution of guerrilla theories.In today's era of swiftly forsaking convention and tradition for immediate results, the adoption of unconventional strategies by twenty-first-century warriors appears more prevalent than ever. Public discourse surrounding this topic is vibrant, and understanding its evolution is vital for increased awareness.Dive into the riveting exploration of unconventional warfare throughout the ages with historian David Rooney's insightful narrative.This compelling account not only unveils the trailblazing leaders who reshaped military strategies but also delves into the timely relevance of non-conventional approaches in today's fast-paced world. A must-read for those intrigued by the ever-shifting landscape of unconventional warfare and its profound impact on contemporary global dynamics

Chronicles the turbulent Hollywood love story of Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall, navigating fame, adversity, and enduring passion against all odds.It was the Hollywood romance that warmed hearts and thrilled audiences, but the path to true love was littered with alcoholism, abandonment and bitter disappointments.Humphrey Bogart had crawled up the hard way, leaving behind a childhood without affection for a life as the idol of millions. Bogie's road to stardom had been long and tough, forging a superstar who hated being in the spotlight as much as he loved being in the bar. With three marriages to his name and a reputation as one of the hardest drinkers in Hollywood, happiness was always fleeting.Lauren Bacall grew up in New York as the apple of her hard-working mother's eye, dreaming of a life in the limelight. Modelling by day and tearing tickets at night, when she was summoned to Hollywood to make a screentest, young Betty Bacall grabbed it with both hands. There she was reborn as the vampish Lauren Bacall, a teenage nobody who would make her debut in To Have and Have Not opposite the quintessential Hollywood tough guy, Humphrey Bogart.Nobody expected what came next, but the love affair between Bogie and Bacall took the world by storm. The Real Bogie & Bacall tells the story of two people whose romance shouldn't have worked... but did.

The Victorian era's societal changes and cultural advancements are explored through the lens of daily lifeThe Victorian era is arguably the most exciting and invigorating reign of an English monarch ever, and one of progress on a massive scale. By the time Queen Victoria died in 1901, England was almost unrecognisable. The Victorians neatly avoided revolution, built upon what the Georgians started and turned the country into a political powerhouse which ran the biggest Empire the world had ever seen.Meanwhile, Victorian writers and journalists were observing, questioning, and recording for prosperity the life and times of what would become known as the Victorian era: a steady, relentless building of the modern world. Using quotes from Victorian literature, How the Victorians Lived will help you on your way to understanding how society coped with the upheaval of the industrial revolution during one of the most innovative centuries England has ever seen.This book is a detailed exploration of the daily lives of mainly working- and middle-class Victorians. It recreates the remarkable and wondrous world of the English Victorians: their traditions, their expectations, their hopes and their fears and how these have shaped the society we live in today.

A guide to solo wargaming that offers tips and tricks to beginners and seasoned veterans.This practitioner's guide to solo wargaming offers comprehensive coverage of the subject, showing how it can be a fascinating complement to social gaming or an entire hobby in its own right. This book integrates ideas from across the hobby to discuss various aspects of gaming alone across all manner of conflicts, whether land, sea or air and in any historical period or imagined setting. Starting with the fundamental question of why people play solo wargames, David Heading lays out the various advantages and disadvantages. He also considers such questions as whether to 'play both sides' or to command one army against an 'automatic' opponent, giving various ideas on how to control or program the responses of the opposing force with dice, cards or by other means. There is advice on how to construct challenging and interesting scenarios for one-off engagements, whether these are skirmishes or major battles, historical events or more generic ones, and how to combine these tactical actions into wider campaigns, involving grand strategy, logistics and other factors. Tips on sustaining interest through such activities as recording results, writing campaign diaries and online blogs will help you enrich your hobby. The author has been playing solo wargames for forty years and shares the secrets of happy solo gaming. Packed full of common-sense advice and inspiration, it offers plenty of value to the beginner and the seasoned veteran alike.

Explores the history, organization, and uniforms of the British military under George II, detailing their roles in the Jacobite Rebellion, War of the Austrian Succession, and the global Seven Years' War.Gabriele Esposito provides a detailed overview of the history, organization and uniforms of the British military forces during the long reign of George II (1727-1760). Perhaps best known for the Jacobite Rebellion, this period saw the British military forces greatly expanded and involved in two major international conflicts: the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War. The latter was truly a global war, subsuming the French and Indian wars fought in the Americas, as well as conflicts in India and elsewhere. By 1760, despite achieving little in Europe, Great Britain had been able to expel the French from both Canada and India.After a brief overview of the British forces prior to the period, the author examines each component. He covers not only the regular cavalry and infantry (the Guards, line, Highland and light regiments) but also the artillery and Royal Engineers, Corps of Invalids, the Fencibles, naval infantry, the auxiliary corps created to face the Jacobite Rising of 1745 and the 'allied' contingents from Germany and the Netherlands that fought for Great Britain during the period 1745-1760. There are chapters devoted to the colonial forces deployed in the Thirteen Colonies of North America, with full details on the American militia and provincial military units, as well as forces deployed in the Caribbean and the military contingents of the East India Company. The book is illustrated throughout with excellent color illustrations from The Cloathing Book commissioned in 1742 by the Duke of Cumberland and from the oil paintings of David Morier preserved in the Royal Collections.

Frederick the Great's military prowess and the detailed structure of the Prussian Army, including uniforms and equipment, are vividly explored.Frederick the Great was an acknowledged master of war. Admired and studied by Napoleon, he commanded the Prussian army at sixteen major battles and numerous sieges and other actions, often leading from the front. Under Frederick the Prussian Army became arguably the most feared and efficient in Europe, often defeating numerically superior forces. Gabriele Esposito details the organization, uniforms and equipment of the various branches of service that made up the Prussian Army. Starting with the infantry, whose incredible discipline and excellent training made them the backbone of Frederick's forces he details the famous Guards and the line regiments but also the light infantry jagers and even little-known garrison and auxiliary units. Equal attention is given to the cavalry: Guards, cuirassiers, dragoons, lancers and hussars. There is also a chapter devoted to the 'technical corps' of artillery, pioneers and the like, and there are chapters on the mercenary 'freikorps' and Frederick's German allies. The whole is lavishly illustrated with beautiful colour plates.

A collection of poems reflecting Thomas Hardy's tumultuous marriage to Emma Gifford.In many of his poems, the great Dorset poet and novelist Thomas Hardy referred to a certain romantic courtship, a marriage which became progressively more problematical, and finally to a bereavement in which a man loses his wife. So, who was Hardy writing about? The clue is to be found in his early poems, where the names of several locations in North Cornwall are mentioned, this being the very same place which featured in Hardy's courtship of Emma Gifford, who was to become his first wife.The poems raise certain questions. Given that Hardy and Emma gradually drifted apart so that in the end they lived mainly separate lives, albeit under the same roof, why was he so grief-stricken when she died, bearing in mind that their marriage was so unsatisfactory?How did Hardy cope as he passed through the various stages of grief, which he articulated so poignantly and expressively in his poems? These stages are recognized today, thanks to the work of Swiss-US psychiatrist, Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, and US expert on grieving and loss, David Kessler.Finally, how did Hardy survive and come out the other side, and can his experience be a guide to others who find themselves alone and bereft after losing their partner?

King Arthur and the Battle for Britannia is the last in a series of three books. The first, King Arthur: Man or Myth, weighed the evidence for and against a historical figure. The second, The Battles of King Arthur, looked in detail at the famous battle list from the Historia Brittonum. Having looked at the questions of whether and where, this final book takes on the different question of who was Arthur? The book is intended to save readers time and money wading through the scores of competing theories. It explains the problems with many of these theories to date, their failure to gain widespread support and why many historians remain sceptical about the existence of a historical Arthur.There is however a reasonable consistency in medieval genealogies and a good reason why Arthur does not appear in any of the list of kings of early kingdoms. Instead he is placed in the context of a fragmenting post-Roman provincial structure, alongside the emergence of petty kingdoms with new cultural identities. A heroic Brythonic culture in the west and north and a Germanic culture in the east and south.The book looks at the evolution of the legend comparing the chivalric French Romances with the Arthur of the darker Welsh tradition. A mythical figure may have emerged from the mead halls and war band culture of the sixth century. However the book describes how a historical figure may have been mythologized and who such a warrior may have been.

A guidebook that pairs London's historical landmarks with nearby pubs, offering a journey through the city's diverse history and vibrant pub culture.From the Roman conquest to the passing of legislation protecting the rights of LGBTQ+, the history of London is one of diversity, integration and progress - never standing still and always setting the agenda. Metropolitan London has around 7,000 public houses - an average of 25 pubs per square mile. No other capital city in the world matches this density. It's not surprising that the London pub is such an institution at home and abroad! Pubs were part and parcel of the expansion of London - that grew to be the world's largest city by the 1830s. Because pubs are omnipresent in the capital, a pub can always be found near a place of historical significance. This book selects some key moments in the history of London, from Roman times to the modern day, and suggests a popular pub nearby to savour the moment - re-living the history with a drink in hand! The Pub Lover's Guide to London explains the driving forces behind the most significant moments in the history of London - and the best pubs near to where history was made. In all, 52 great pubs to visit - one for each week of the year!

A guide with suggestions, tips, anecdotes, and exercises to help you get started in Creative Writing.Does the idea of creative writing excite you, but you've no idea how to begin?Do you want to write a story, a local interest book, or even complete a book of poetry? Maybe you would love to create a legacy piece to hand down to future generations, or capture the essence of your relative's lives but don't know where to start or what to include?Between suggestions, tips, anecdotes, and exercises, you will glean a mountain of information that will set you on your way no matter if you are new to creative writing or have a book or three under your belt.With a friendly, accessible tone, A Guide to Creative Writing gives you the tools you need to write for the love of it or to take it further.

Polish fighter pilots were crucial to RAF operations from 1939 to 1945, fighting valiantly across Europe, North Africa, and beyond.From the first combat over Poland in 1939, until Bomber Command's assault on Hitler's alpine retreat at Berchtesgaden in April 1945, when the red and white marked Mustangs escorted the bombers on their way to the target, there was no major RAF aerial operation undertaken in Europe without the involvement of Polish fighter squadrons and pilots.As well as mounting offensive sorties from the UK, Polish fighter squadrons fought in North Africa in 1943, where they added to their already formidable reputation. Some Polish airmen were even posted to the US Air Force, again proving themselves in battle.Polish fighter pilots operated over the Normandy beaches in support of the D-Day landings in June 1944. Some of the Polish squadrons were then deployed across the Channel to France, from where they undertook dangerous dive-bombing missions, while their colleagues in Britain chased the much-feared V1 flying bombs.The last Polish claims were made in April 1945, when a number of the Luftwaffe's technically-advanced Messerschmitt Me 262 jets were destroyed in a dog fight by Nos. 306 and 309 Polish squadrons. These victories marked the end of the journey that started almost six years earlier.After claiming a total of 748 enemy aircraft destroyed under British and American command, Polish fighter pilots gained a reputation for being loyal and fearsome warriors, who sacrificed nearly 550 of their own men, killed in action, wounded, missing, or captured, while fighting for the freedom that their countrymen would not enjoy for many decades.Polish fighter pilots fought in the skies from the very first day of the war until its last. As well as seeing action in Western Europe, they fought in Italy, North Africa and in Asia. The last PAF airman was killed in action on 4 May 1945. He was a fighter pilot of No. 317 (City of Wilno) Squadron. While his Spitfire was going down, not only Wilno, but the rest of Poland, was being absorbed into the Soviet Union. He died for a cause that was already lost. Nevertheless, the achievements of the Polish squadrons, man for man, rank amongst the highest of the Allied nations.