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American schoolteaching is one of few occupations to have undergone a thorough gender shift yet previous explanations have neglected a key feature of the transition: its regional character. By the early 1800s, far higher proportions of women were teaching in the Northeast than in the South, and this regional difference was reproduced as settlers moved West before the Civil War. What explains the creation of these divergent regional arrangements in the East, their recreation in the West, and their eventual disappearance by the next century? In Women's Work the authors blend newly available quantitative evidence with historical narrative to show that distinctive regional school structures and related cultural patterns account for the initial regional difference, while a growing recognition that women could handle the work after they temporarily replaced men during the Civil War helps explain this widespread shift to female teachers later in the century. Yet despite this shift, a significant gender gap in pay and positions remained. This book offers an original and thought-provoking account of a remarkable historical transition.

In the 1980s, the formerly planned markets of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe and the developing nations of Latin America and East Asia embarked upon unprecedented efforts to alter their economic regimes. These first-stage reforms involved a major reconceptualization of the principal elements of the economy, private property, and trade. But in the wake of these reforms, the need for second-stage reforms--thechanges--arose implementation of more structural changes-arose; without the development of new regulatory agencies, tax reform initiatives, adjustments to trade policies, and enhancements in education, labor, and telecommunications, the prospects for economic growth engendered during the first-stage reforms might not be realized. Economic Policy Reform: The Second Stage provides an incisive overview of the context of these crucial second-stage reforms with a thorough examination of the issues confronting the policymakers involved. Edited by Anne O. Krueger, it features studies from distinguished experts in various fields of economics. Each chapter of this book addresses a key issue in economic policy, examines the progress of reforms in the markets considered, and then explores what research might further aid leaders as they embark on fundamental changes. Both a handbook for economists and practitioners and a theoretical exploration of the most significant challenges currently facing the economic world, this new book will be indispensable to anyone involved in the global economic scene. Contributors: Vittorio CorboCimon CowanSebastian EdwardsStephan HaggardMichael KremerSteven MatuszFrederic S. MishkinJonathan MorduchRoger G. NollMiguel A. SavastanoT. Paul ShultzMary M. ShirleyT.N. SrinivasanJoseph E. StiglitzVito TanziDavid TarrAaron Tornell

Our current social security system operates on a pay-as-you-go basis; benefits are paid almost entirely out of current revenues. As the ratio of retirees to taxpayers increases, concern about the high costs of providing benefits in a pay-as-you-go system has led economists to explore other options. One involves "prefunding," in which a person's withholdings are invested in financial instruments, such as stocks and bonds, the eventual returns from which would fund his or her retirement. The risks such a system would introduce--such as the volatility in the market prices of investment assets--are the focus of this offering from the NBER. Exploring the issues involved in measuring risk and developing models to reflect the risks of various investment-based systems, economists evaluate the magnitude of the risks that both retirees and taxpayers would assume. The insights that emerge show that the risk is actually moderate relative to the improved return, as well as being balanced by the ability of an investment-based system to adapt to differences in individual preferences and conditions.

Talking dogs pitching ethnic food. Heart-tugging appeals for contributions. Recruitment calls for enlistment in the military. Tub-thumpers excoriating American society with over-the-top rhetoric. At every turn, Americans are exhorted to spend money, join organizations, rally to causes, or express outrage. Image Makers is a comprehensive analysis of modern advocacy-from commercials to public service ads to government propaganda-and its roots in advertising and public relations. Robert Jackall and Janice M. Hirota explore the fashioning of the apparatus of advocacy through the stories of two organizations, the Committee on Public Information, which sold the Great War to the American public, and the Advertising Council, which since the Second World War has been the main coordinator of public service advertising. They then turn to the career of William Bernbach, the adman's adman, who reinvented advertising and grappled creatively with the profound skepticism of a propaganda-weary midcentury public. Jackall and Hirota argue that the tools-in-trade and habits of mind of "image makers" have now migrated into every corner of modern society. Advocacy is now a vocation for many, and American society abounds as well with "technicians in moral outrage," including street-smart impresarios, feminist preachers, and bombastic talk-radio hosts. The apparatus and ethos of advocacy give rise to endlessly shifting patterns of conflicting representations and claims, and in their midst Image Makers offers a clear and spirited understanding of advocacy in contemporary society and the quandaries it generates.

Until the 1940s, social life in Taiwan was generally organized and given meaning through the family - marriages were arranged by parents, for example, and senior males held authority. In the following years, as Taiwan evolved rapidly from an agrarian to an industrialized society, individual decisions became less dependent on the family and more strongly influenced by outside forces. Social Change and the Family in Taiwan provides an in-depth analysis of the complex changes in family relations in a society undergoing revolutionary economic and social transformation. This thorough, interdisciplinary study explores the patterns and causes of change in various aspects of society, including education, work, income transfers, leisure time, marriage, living arrangements, and interactions with extended kin. Theoretical chapters enunciate a theory of family and social change centered on the life course and modes of social organization. Other chapters look at the shift from arranged marriages toward love matches, as well as changes in dating practices, premarital sex, fertility, and divorce. The authors bring together perspectives from sociology, demography, economics, anthropology, and history to provide a thorough and informative study of the many ways social and economic changes affect the family.

In the increasingly global economy, domestic tax policies have taken on a new importance for international economics. This unique volume compares the tax reform experiences of Canada and the United States, two countries with the world's largest bilateral flow of trade and investment. With the signing of the U.S.-Canada Free Trade Agreement and the tax reforms of the 1980s, there has been some harmonization of tax systems. But geographic, cultural, and political characteristics shape distinct national social policies that may impede harmonization. As the U.S. and Canadian economies become even more integrated, differences in tax systems will have important effects, in particular on the relative rates of economic growth. Scholars from both countries examine the extent to which conformity between these national programs has taken place, focusing on tax reforms of the 1980s, and assess the effects over the long term. The authors carefully consider the policy environment in which social programs are established and implemented, including such aspects as property rights, incentive structures, the degree and kind of economic freedoms, and the systems of private and public decision making. By comparing these environments, the authors show that certain aspects of the tax systems of Canada and the United States are converging, while in other respects they are diverging. For instance, both countries exhibit similar corporate tax structures and income tax systems, but they have very different approaches to sales taxes and social security taxes. Another interesting conclusion from these investigations is that although tax policies differ, outcomes are often quite similar. For example, they generateroughly the same amounts of revenue, produce similar costs of capital, and produce comparable distributions of income. The methodology and results of this research will have significant implications for the analysis and development of trade policies among other nations, as well as for understanding domestic social policy in a global economy.

In this insightful work, Martin H. Krieger shows what physicists are really doing behind the nearly impenetrable cloud of mathematical models they use as research tools. He argues that the technical details of these complex calculations serve not only as a means to an end, but also reveal key aspects of the physical properties they model. Using two tours de force of modern physics as case studies - proofs that ordinary matter is stable, and solutions to the Ising model of a phase transition (how a liquid freezes to a solid, for instance) - Krieger uncovers the philosophical foundations on which the mathematical models of these phenomena are built. In so doing, he gives the reader a better feel not just for how physicists believe the natural world is structured, but also for how they have arrived at those conclusions. Krieger's lucid discussions will help students of physics and applied mathematics appreciate the larger physical issues behind the mathematical details of modern physics. Historians and philosophers of science will gain deeper insights into how theoretical physicists do science, while technically advanced general readers will get a rare, behind-the-scenes glimpse into the world of modern physics.

The rapid emergence of East Asia as an important geopolitical-economic entity has been one of the most visible and striking changes in the international economy in recent years. With that emergence has come an increased need for understanding the problems of interdependence. As a step toward meeting this need, the National Bureau of Economic Research joined with the Korea Development Institute to sponsor this volume, which focuses on the complexities of tax reform in a global economy. Experts from Taiwan, Korea, the Philippines, Japan, and Thailand, as well as the United States, Canada, and Israel examine the major tax programs of the 1980s and their domestic and international economic effects. The authors provide overviews, country studies, and analyses of the effect of taxes on specific economic behavior, including saving and economic growth. The overviews include an examination of the link between taxes and domestic capital formation in open economies, and a look at the similarities and differences in the tax structure of eight East Asian countries. Other papers address broad issues related to tax policy and economic performance. Contributors evaluate the effects of changing the marginal tax rate on income from capital; analyze the relation between Korea's tax structure and its rate of economic growth; study the impact of tax reform and the aging Japanese population on savings; compare and contrast the gift and estate tax systems of the United States and Japan; and examine whether the tax systems of Korea and Taiwan, particularly the taxation of foreign capital, distort resource allocation. Studies of the political and economic interactions that underlie tax reform in the UnitedStates, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan reveal that in au of these countries domestic political considerations were far more important than international issues when deciding on tax reforms. Economists, policymakers, and members of the business community will benefit from these studies.

This timely volume addresses important recent trends in the internationalization of equity markets. These trends include increasing securitization as many countries come to rely more than ever before on markets in equities and bonds, extensive market integration through foreign investment and resulting links among stock prices around the world, and the opening of national financial systems of newly industrializing countries to international financial flows and institutions as governments remove capital controls and other barriers. Eight essays examine such issues as the current extent of international market integration, gains to U.S. investors through international diversification, fundamental macroeconomic determinants of securities prices, home-country bias in investing, securities transactions taxes, the role of time and location around the world in stock trading, and the behavior of country funds. Other long-standing questions about equity markets are also addressed, such as market efficiency and the accuracy of models of expected returns, including a particular focus on variances, covariances, and the price of risk, as in the Capital Asset Pricing Model. The Internationalization of Equity Markets will interest academic and business economists concerned with stock market behavior around the world.